Depletion of gaseous CO in protoplanetary disks by surface-energy-regulated ice formation

Empirical constraints of fundamental properties protoplanetary disks are essential for understanding planet formation and planetary (1,2). Carbon monoxide (CO) gas is often used to constrain disk (3). However, estimates show that the CO abundance in depleted relative expected values (4,5,6,7), models various processes impacting could not explain this depletion on observed 1Myr timescales (8,9,10,11,12,13,14). Here we demonstrate surface energy effects particles disks, such as Kelvin effect, arise when ice heterogeneously nucleates onto an existing particle can efficiently trap its phase. In previous models, was released small ice-coated were lofted warmed layers. Our model reproduce abundance, distribution time evolution gaseous four most studied (7). We solid inventory at midplane diffusivities resolve inconsistencies mass -- three crucial parameters control formation.